Scientific articles

Curated peer-reviewed research.

Summaries of the primary literature behind the peptide families we discuss — every entry links to the original source.

GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon

LY3437943 (retatrutide), a novel triple GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist, in adults with obesity

Jastreboff AM, Kaplan LM, Frías JP, et al. — New England Journal of Medicine, 2023; 389:514–526

Phase-2 RCT (n=338) showed mean weight reduction of −24.2% at 48 weeks at the 12 mg dose. Triple agonism produced dose-dependent reductions in body weight, waist circumference, hepatic fat and HbA1c, with GI events the principal adverse signal.

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Dual incretin

Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1)

Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, et al. — New England Journal of Medicine, 2022; 387:205–216

72-week RCT, n=2539. Mean weight loss of −20.9% at the 15 mg dose vs −3.1% placebo. Established dual GIP/GLP-1 agonism as a benchmark for incretin-based weight management.

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GLP-1

Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP-1)

Wilding JPH, Batterham RL, Calanna S, et al. — New England Journal of Medicine, 2021; 384:989–1002

68-week trial, n=1961. Semaglutide 2.4 mg produced mean weight loss of −14.9% vs −2.4% placebo. Foundational STEP trial supporting the GLP-1R mono-agonist class.

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Mitochondrial

The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c regulates insulin sensitivity and metabolic homeostasis

Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, et al. — Cell Metabolism, 2015; 21:443–454

Identified MOTS-c as a 16-aa peptide encoded within the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene. AMPK activation in skeletal muscle improved insulin sensitivity and prevented diet-induced obesity in mice.

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Mitochondrial

First-in-class cardiolipin-protective compound as a therapeutic agent

Szeto HH. — British Journal of Pharmacology, 2014; 171:2029–2050

Review of SS-31 (elamipretide) mechanism: selective binding to cardiolipin stabilises mitochondrial cristae and the electron-transport chain, reducing ROS production across multiple organ-injury models.

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Tissue repair

Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 — past, present and future research

Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Rucman R, et al. — Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2018; 24:1990–2001

Comprehensive review of preclinical BPC-157 literature: tendon-to-bone healing, gut-mucosal protection, vascular and nitric-oxide modulation. Notes absence of human-efficacy RCTs.

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GH secretagogues

Beyond the androgen receptor: the role of growth hormone secretagogues in the modern management of body composition in hypogonadal males

Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. — Sexual Medicine Reviews, 2018; 6:45–53

Review covering ipamorelin, CJC-1295, GHRP-2/6 — their pharmacology, GH-pulse restoration, and comparison with exogenous rhGH. Highlights pulsatility advantages and IGF-1 responses.

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Melanocortin

Bremelanotide for hypoactive sexual desire disorder: two randomized phase 3 trials

Kingsberg SA, Clayton AH, Portman D, et al. — Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2019; 134:899–908

RECONNECT trials of PT-141 (bremelanotide) — a non-selective melanocortin agonist. Pivotal data leading to FDA approval (Vyleesi) for HSDD in premenopausal women.

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Immune

Thymosin alpha 1: from bench to bedside

Garaci E, Pica F, Sinibaldi-Vallebona P, et al. — Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2007; 1112:225–234

Reviews TLR9-dependent maturation of dendritic cells by Tα1, supporting its licensed use in hepatitis B and as a vaccine adjuvant in 35+ countries.

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Nootropic

Semax and its analogues: from neuroprotection to neurogenesis

Kolomin T, Shadrina M, Slominsky P, et al. — Current Drug Discovery Technologies, 2013; 10:217–223

Reviews the ACTH(4-10) analogue Semax — BDNF/NGF upregulation in hippocampus, anxiolytic and nootropic effects in rodent models, clinical use in Russia for ischaemic stroke.

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